To objectively assess the comprehensive climate-ecological impacts of different multi-scenario layouts of wind-solar hybrid power stations, this study develops a multi-scenario comparative assessment framework covering layout design, climate simulation, and ecological response, based on a self-developed meteorological-wind-solar coupling model and an ecological process mechanism model. Taking Alxa in Inner Mongolia and Hami in Xinjiang as case studies, four representative scenarios were designed under two constraints: maximizing stability of joint wind-solar generation and equal-area layout, while considering spatial relationships along the prevailing wind direction. Subsequently, a series of controlled numerical experiments were carried out. The results indicate that the climate-ecological effects of wind-solar complementary power stations are jointly influenced by layout plans, regional climatic conditions and climate change characteristics, showing distinct spatial differentiation characteristics. Therefore, during the planning of large-scale wind-solar bases in Sandy Arid Gobi regions, multi-scenario comparison should be carried out considering regional climate characteristics to provide a scientific basis for new energy development, local climate stability and ecological protection.

As a crucial photovoltaic base in China, Gansu province has become a key anchor for safeguarding national energy security and achieving the “dual carbon” goals. The CARE high resolution radiation product, site observations from Gansu, and CMIP6 simulations are integrated in this study to systematically evaluate future spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of theoretical photovoltaic power generation (TPG) in Gansu. The results indicate that the CMIP6 models demonstrate generally good simulation capabilities but with differences, with MRI-ESM2-0 performing the best. Future changes in TPG depend on the climate response mechanisms driven by socioeconomic development pathways. The future evolution of TPG in Gansu province is strongly dependent on emission pathways. Under the moderate forcing SSP2-4.5 scenario, TPG enters a rapid growth trajectory (reaching an increase of 2.55 kW∙h/(m²∙(10 a)) by 21st mid-century). In contrast, under the high forcing SSP5-8.5 scenario, the “temperature penalty” on PV modules induced by extreme warming substantially offsets the radiative benefits, leading to a significant decline in the desert areas of western Gansu in the long term (locally up to -9 kW∙h/(m²∙(10 a))). Under the sustainable development pathway (SSP1-2.6), TPG shows limited growth, with increases nearly stagnating after 21st mid-century. This study provides reliable data and decision support for regional photovoltaic potential assessment and strategic planning.

To alleviate output fluctuations under high shares of renewable energy and optimize the configuration of wind-solar hybrid systems in Hubei province, this study used long-term ERA5 reanalysis data from 1995 to 2024 to construct a normalized wind power output model based on the power curve of a near-100 m low-wind-speed reference turbine, together with a normalized photovoltaic output model considering plane-of-array irradiance and 2 m air temperature correction. Pearson correlation coefficient, comprehensive complementarity index, coefficient of variation, and the standard deviation of combined normalized output were employed to evaluate the intra-day complementary characteristics of wind and solar resources, the smoothing effect of joint power output, and the statistically optimal wind-solar ratio in Hubei province. The results show that wind and solar resources in Hubei exhibit a pronounced intra-day complementary pattern characterized by “daytime solar and nighttime wind”, although clear spatial heterogeneity exists, with stronger complementarity in the central and eastern plains and hilly areas than in the western mountainous regions. Based on the minimum standard deviation criterion of combined normalized output, the statistically optimal wind power weight for the whole province is about 68%, under which the fluctuation of joint output is significantly reduced. Spatially, the mountainous areas of western Hubei and some highland areas in eastern Hubei are more suitable for wind-dominated configurations, whereas the Jianghan Plain and its surrounding areas are more suitable for a relatively balanced wind-solar configuration. Analyses of typical adverse weather scenarios further indicate that a reasonable wind-solar ratio can help reduce output fluctuations under unfavorable conditions such as hot and calm weather, persistent cloudy weather, and cold surges with strong winds. After introducing basic land-use constraints and excluding water bodies and built-up land, the proportion of developable grid cells decreases to 49.15%, while the statistically optimal wind power weight for the whole province changes to 67%, indicating that land-use constraints mainly reduce the developable area but do not substantially alter the province-scale optimal wind-solar ratio. Elevation-stratified analysis further suggests that terrain height is an important factor controlling the spatial differences in wind-solar complementarity and the optimal wind power weight. These results can provide a scientific reference for renewable energy siting and source-side configuration planning in Hubei province.

Systematically assessing the countermeasures and actions for adapting to climate change in the field of local ecological protection is of great significance for the scientific implementation of adaptation actions. This study collected 742 documents related to climate change (CC) adaptation in the field of ecological protection at the provincial-level in China (excluding Taiwan province), and drew on international analytical methods to identify the status of CC adaptation countermeasures and actions at the provincial level. It also analyzed the adaptation initiatives index score, as well as the scores of adaptive capacity and adaptation readiness. In addition, by calculating Kendall’s tau-b, spearman-rho, and Pearson correlation coefficients, the relationships between the adaptation initiatives index and adaptive capacity and adaptation readiness were identified. The results show: (1) the provincial countermeasures for CC adaptation in the ecological protection field in China mainly focus on formulating and implementing regulations and economic incentive strategies related to ecological protection, ecosystem management and protection, biodiversity conservation and utilization, prevention of ecological disasters and harmful organisms, ecological degradation control and ecological monitoring, ecological space optimization, development of adaptive technologies, implementation of comprehensive ecological protection countermeasures and supervision. (2) The adaptation to CC in the field of ecological protection involves 6 types of actions and 31 specific measures, including early warning of extreme events and related disasters, disaster prevention and mitigation, emergency response, ecological protection and restoration, biodiversity conservation, ecological monitoring and supervision, ecological space zoning and optimization, and capacity building, etc. (3) The adaptation measures in the field of ecological protection in response to CC mainly belong to responsive actions, including the no-regret strategy, the low-regret strategy, the win-win strategy, the flexible adaptability strategy, as well as response-oriented measures in response to CC. Moreover, measures for risk prevention, reducing vulnerability, increasing resilience, and improving adaptive capacity are also included. (4) The score of the adaptation initiatives index in the field of ecological protection belongs to medium level (the provincial total scores range from 8.5 to 14.0). (5) The scores of adaptive capacity and adaptation readiness both belong to medium level (the scores are 2.5-4.0 and 3.0-5.5 respectively). (6) The adaptation initiatives index shows a significant positive correlation (P<0.05) with adaptive capacity and adaptation readiness. The results indicate that the countermeasures and actions for CC adaptation in the provincial-level ecological protection field in China have increased, but they are mainly focused on responding to current ecosystem changes, and mainly include no-regret and low-regret adaptive actions. Specialized measures for CC response, adaptive capacity and adaptation readiness still need to be increased.

Clarifying the spatiotemporal evolution of maize potential yield under climate change and disentangling the contributions of climatic factors versus agronomic advances are critical for global food security. China, as the world’s second-largest maize producer, faces increasing challenges from warming and precipitation volatility. To quantify these impacts, this study integrated long-term data (1981-2023) from 248 agrometeorological stations across China. We employed the CERES-Maize model to simulate maize growth under three scenarios: optimal cultivar without water-fertilizer stress (S1), optimal cultivar with actual management (S2), and actual cultivar without water-fertilizer stress (S3). A panel threshold regression model was further applied to identify the nonlinear response thresholds of yield to key climatic factors (temperature, precipitation, diurnal temperature range, and sunshine duration). The results are as followed. From 1981 to 2023, the national actual yield increased at a rate of 147 kg/(hm²∙a); however, 28% of the stations experienced yield stagnation or decline. Conversely, potential yield exhibited a significant downward trend at 62% of the stations, indicating a tightening biophysical ceiling. Attribution analysis revealed that climate change negatively impacted yield (-38.6 kg/(hm²∙a)), while technological progress contributed positively (185.6 kg/(hm²∙a)). Notably, cultivar improvement was the dominant driver (except in the Northwest irrigation zone), accounting for 81.4%, whereas water and fertilizer management contributed only 18.6%. Threshold analysis identified growing-season mean temperature (threshold: 20.5℃) and total precipitation (threshold: 490.8 mm) as the primary limiting factors under actual production conditions. Scenario comparison demonstrated that eliminating water and fertilizer stress lowered the temperature threshold to 19.2℃, implying increased heat sensitivity under high-input conditions. Adopting optimal cultivars significantly reduced dependency on rainfall (lowering the precipitation threshold to 288.0 mm) and mitigated heat stress in high-temperature regions. Although optimal cultivars and sufficient inputs can enhance climate resilience and break through partial yield stagnation, they cannot fully eliminate the constraints of extreme climates, particularly high temperatures. Future strategies for high-yield systems must prioritize breakthroughs in overcoming heat limitations, as cultivar improvement remains the most effective pathway compared to the diminishing marginal returns of water-fertilizer intensification.

Public participation is a critical mechanism for enhancing the effectiveness and legitimacy of climate change responses. The “Nationally Determined Contributions+Global Stocktake” framework established by the Paris Agreement has driven global climate governance from a top-down, state-dominated model toward a bottom-up, multi-stakeholder collaborative and action-oriented approach, with public participation playing an increasingly prominent role in mitigation, adaptation, and climate risk governance. A combination of bibliometric and normative analysis is employed to systematically examine the paradigm evolution, practical challenges, and pathway choices of public participation in global climate governance. The findings reveal are as follows. Public participation in global climate governance is undergoing a transformation from the old paradigm characterized by state dominance and marginalized participation to a new paradigm featuring institutionalization, digitalization, and action orientation, though the transition faces structural dilemmas including polarized individual expression, imbalanced multi-stakeholder coordination, and participation inequality. The formation of the new paradigm depends on the collective impetus of institutional space expansion anchored by the Paris Agreement, socialization of climate risks, and digital technology empowerment. While providing pathways and value references for other countries, China should deepen localized and institutionalized public participation pathways by improving public participation systems, strengthening climate risk communication, promoting community-level adaptation actions, building digital participation platforms, and enhancing public climate literacy. This research provides theoretical references and policy insights for improving public participation mechanisms in climate change responses.

Typhoons are a major source of both severe meteorological disasters and crucial freshwater replenishment in China. Current assessments, however, predominantly focus on disaster losses and overlook the resource benefits of precipitation. This study proposes a Tropical Cyclone Comprehensive Impact Evaluation and Assessment (TC-CIEA) to evaluate the dual disaster-resource attributes of typhoons using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and daily maximum wind speed data. By analyzing antecedent moisture conditions and SPI variations, alongside a wind speed disaster-trigger threshold of 17.2 m/s, the model effectively distinguishes between disaster risks and water replenishment benefits. A Typhoon Comprehensive Impact Index (TCII) and a relative net impact index ρ are further constructed, classifying typhoon impacts into five objective categories based on the physical ratio between the resource and disaster terms. The classification stability is validated using 521 typhoon samples from 1981 to 2023. Case studies indicate that the model accurately captures the spatial disparity of Typhoon Doksuri, which caused severe disasters in eastern China but relieved drought in western North China and quantifies the replenishment benefits of Typhoon Talim’s peripheral precipitation in South China without triggering the high-wind disaster threshold. Ultimately, this study transcends traditional hazard-only perspectives, offering a comprehensive framework to support targeted disaster prevention and scientific water resource management.

Extreme events triggered by global warming have had profound impacts on both natural ecosystems and socio-economic structures. Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) models are widely used for assessing the indirect economic losses caused by disasters. Based on an improved loss function, the direct economic losses caused by extreme events under different climate scenarios in China in the future are estimated in this paper, and these losses are embedded into a composite function of labor and capital in a dynamic CGE model to systematically estimate the indirect economic losses under long-term cumulative effects. The results show that the direct economic losses are the lowest under the SSP245 scenario. The ratios of direct economic losses to GDP under three scenarios (SSP126, SSP245 and SSP585) all present a trend of rising first and then falling, exhibiting a significant “multiplier effect” with a gradually increasing loss rate. The indirect economic losses under the SSP585 scenario are significantly higher than those under the other two scenarios. By 2060, the indirect economic losses will reach as much as ten times the direct economic losses. There are significant differences in the changes of indirect economic losses across three modules: production, trade, and balance of payments. In the production module, total output initially increases and then decreases, and except for the extractive industry, the output of the other six sectors decreases to varying degrees. In the trade module, the trends of total consumption and imports are relatively consistent, with exports showing a clear downward trend. In the balance of payments module, government revenue, household income, and household consumption all show a downward trend year by year.

Based on the daily mean temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity data from 585 national meteorological stations across China for 1961-2020, using the Body Comfort Meteorological Index (BCMI) and GIS-based spatial interpolation, the spatiotemporal variations of human climatic comfort across China were systematically analyzed at annual, seasonal, monthly, and solar-term scales. Sensitivity analysis and contribution-rate methods were used to identify the drivers of changes in human comfort and to quantitatively compare the relative roles of temperature, wind speed, and humidity across regions and seasons. The main findings are as follows. From 1961 to 2020, China experienced an annual average of 180 comfortable days, with lower values in the northwest and higher values in the southeast. This pattern broadly reflected the combined effects of latitude, elevation, and monsoon circulation, with arid and high-altitude inland areas having fewer comfortable days and humid monsoon regions having more. Over the past 60 years, the national annual average number of comfortable days increased at a rate of 2.8 days per decade, indicating an overall improvement in climatic comfort. The increases were more pronounced in Southwest and North China, whereas decreases in comfortable days were concentrated in the south-central part of South China, reflecting marked regional heterogeneity in the long-term evolution of comfort. In spring and autumn, 14.9% and 6.6% of the national meteorological stations shifted from cold discomfort to comfort, indicating a widespread reduction in cold-related discomfort during the transition seasons. In summer, parts of Central China, North China, South China, among other regions, shifted from comfort to heat discomfort, suggesting an intensified warm-season thermal burden in densely populated areas. Rising temperature was the dominant factor driving changes in BCMI values, followed by decreasing wind speed, and their combined effects explained most of the observed station-level transitions. In addition, some stations in Hubei, Hunan, Sichuan, and Chongqing experienced increased wind speed and a slight decline in summer temperature, leading to a shift from heat discomfort to comfort and further demonstrating the spatial non-uniformity of climatic forcing mechanisms. The Grain Buds solar term had the largest comfortable area nationwide, with comfortable stations accounting for 93.2% of all national stations, indicating that late spring to early summer is generally the most favorable period for human climatic comfort in China. By contrast, the periods from Minor Heat to Major Heat and from Minor Cold to Major Cold showed the greatest nationwide extent of heat discomfort and cold discomfort, accounting for 28.1% and 92.3% of total national stations, respectively. This result reveals a clear intra-annual contrast, with heat stress concentrated in midsummer and cold stress dominating in midwinter at the national scale. Compared with period I (1961-1990), period II (1991-2020) showed an extended comfortable period: the onset of the spring comfortable period advanced from the Beginning of Summer to Grain Rain, while the end of the autumn comfortable period was delayed from Autumn Equinox to Cold Dew. Moreover, summer heat discomfort increased, whereas winter cold discomfort weakened notably. Overall, although the annual comfort window has expanded, intensified summer heat discomfort indicates growing climate-health risks in warm seasons, highlighting the need for region-specific adaptation strategies and season-targeted risk management.

Translating the global consensus on synergistic climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation into concrete, actionable local solutions has emerged as an urgent scientific and policy challenge. To develop a multi-objective spatial synergy optimization and governance framework applicable to local practice, this study took Lishui city in Zhejiang province as a case study. By integrating species distribution models with the systematic conservation planning tool Marxan, three synergistic scenarios were simulated: biodiversity-carbon stocks, biodiversity-carbon sequestration, and a tripartite scenario encompassing all three objectives. Based on the spatial overlap of these scenarios, three distinct types of synergistic governance zones were identified: Ecological Baseline Zones, Function Optimization Zones, and Key Enhancement Zones. The results demonstrate significant differences among these zones in terms of spatial distribution, ecological characteristics, and management implications. Spatially, the Ecological Baseline Zones are predominantly distributed in the western part of the study area, while the Function Optimization Zones and Key Enhancement Zones are mainly concentrated in the southern and eastern parts. Ecologically, the Ecological Baseline Zones are characterized by mature and stable ecosystems with large carbon stocks; the Function Optimization Zones represent ecosystems in a growth and restoration phase, exhibiting outstanding potential for carbon sequestration; and the Key Enhancement Zones are stable yet dynamic ecosystems, rich in species and featuring both high carbon storage and high carbon sequestration capacity. Accordingly, local spatial planning should progressively develop a differentiated governance strategy system of “green transformation-restoration enhancement-smart management”, implementing zone-specific measures such as conservation-oriented green transformation, value-added ecological restoration, and precisely targeted interventions.

The 30th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP30) was held in Belém, Brazil, marking a new stage of “multi-objective composite implementation” with implementation as its core. In particular, Just Transition issue has made important breakthroughs in moving towards collective action and implementation, and the conference authorized the establishment of a “Just Transition Mechanism”. This achievement not only addresses the core concerns of developing countries regarding the long-standing call for concrete actions, but also fundamentally changes the positioning of this issue in the global climate governance system, shifting from a loose, information sharing based dialogue platform to an institutionalized framework aimed at promoting substantive international cooperation and action. This article aims to systematically analyze the main achievements of COP30 on the Just Transition issue, deeply explore its profound impact on the future international negotiation pattern, and based on this, prospectively analyze the main challenges and core issues that global governance will face in the future process of the Just Transition, and explore its prospects as well as the role China should play.

The 30th Conference of the Parties (COP30) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has included trade issues on the climate negotiation agenda for the first time, which is expected to create new opportunities for promoting the large-scale growth of trade in renewable energy products. However, increasingly tense geopolitical rivalries and competition in green technology are creating numerous uncertainties for the orderly functioning of trade in renewable energy products. We summarize how recent developments in global climate governance and new trends in international geopolitics are affecting trade in renewable energy products, and analyze the evolving landscape of China’s renewable energy exports and their potential implications in this new context. We suggest that China’s participation in global trade in renewable energy products should prioritize the following areas: leveraging the World Trade Organization (WTO) dispute settlement mechanism to strengthen legal countermeasures; consolidating the comprehensive advantages of the industrial chain to maintain export competitiveness; coordinating domestic and international pressures to enhance the sustainability of export profits; and aligning with the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) targets to unlock the potential for export growth. These measures are intended to provide policy guidance for promoting the high-quality development of China’s renewable energy industry.

The voluntary carbon market serves as a crucial tool for guiding the allocation of climate finance. However, in recent years, it has faced a credibility crisis due to frequent greenwashing incidents. The Chinese Certified Emission Reduction (CCER) scheme, which was relaunched in 2024, is currently in its early stage of development. It is imperative to address the risks of greenwashing and improve the relevant institutional design. Existing attention to greenwashing in the voluntary carbon market remains limited, largely confined to evaluations of carbon credit projects or deceptive green marketing by credit buyers, lacking a systematic analysis of greenwashing behaviors. This paper establishes a comprehensive analytical framework for greenwashing in the voluntary carbon market, systematically dissecting the motivations and behavioral patterns of various stakeholders. It finds that greenwashing not only exists within individual entities but also becomes more covert and harmful through collusion among multiple stakeholders. The paper identifies the institutional deficiencies underlying greenwashing in the voluntary carbon market, and puts forward targeted policy recommendations based on the experience of countermeasures at home and abroad. The aim is to promote the high-quality development of the CCER mechanism, realize the dual-engine model for China’s carbon market, and contribute Chinese wisdom and solutions to global carbon market.